Climate adaptation refers to adjustments in systems, practices, and infrastructure to reduce vulnerability to climate change impacts. For municipalities, adaptation includes building flood protection, upgrading stormwater systems for intense rainfall, planting heat-resistant urban forests, designing cooling spaces for extreme heat, and strengthening infrastructure against severe weather. Adaptation is distinct from mitigation (reducing emissions)—both are necessary but address different aspects of the climate challenge. Significant debates exist about who pays for adaptation: municipalities bear many costs but argue they did not cause climate change, while provincial and federal governments face pressure to fund adaptation infrastructure. Adaptation planning increasingly shapes municipal capital programs.